[Ebook PDF] Fundamentals of College Admission Counseling, 5th Edition

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Fundamentals of College Admission Counseling, 5th Edition

Authors: by National Association for College Admission Counseling (Author)

Completely updated, the textbook is the definitive classroom resource for graduate education programs in secondary school counseling. It is also a must-read for practicing counselors, particularly those new to the profession. The textbook includes 26 chapters authored by leading practitioners as well as researchers and higher education faculty. The text includes information on counseling foundations and theory, ethics and practice, student pathways and options, serving diverse student populations, and more. This edition also includes the following new chapters: • Foundations of Standardized Admission Testing • Advising Students and Families About Paying for College • Counseling First-Generation Students and Families • Technology Tools for the Savvy School Counselor • Serving Undocumented Students • Counseling International Students at US High Schools • Advising the Transnational Applicant

Introduction
For educators, the challenge of ensuring a future workforce that is ready to compete in a global economy persists. Although the graduation rate rose by nearly a percentage point from 2015 to 2016, from 83.2 percent to 84.1 percent, the United States still suffers from a high school “drop out problem” and an overall achievement gap based on students’ ethnic and income backgrounds (US Department of Education, 2018). Essentially, the achievement and/or opportunity gaps in the United States have resulted in college enrollment gaps—low income students, and students of color (primarily African American, Native
American, and Latino/Hispanic students) attend and graduate from college disproportionately compared to their white, Asian, and affluent peers (Baum & Payea, 2005; US Department of Education, 2018). This is a critical problem, given that many of the fastest-growing jobs in the United States require some form of postsecondary education (US Department of Commerce, 2017). As such, a key factor in our nation’s ability to compete in an increasingly global economy is the rate in which we can prepare students for entry into postsecondary institutions.
For educators, the challenge of ensuring a future workforce that is ready to compete in a global economy persists. In response to labor market needs, there has been an unparalleled development of college and career readiness initiatives across the United States. A major component in these initiatives is the deployment of college counseling. The literature contains a plethora of articles, books, and studies indicating the positive influence of counseling (if accessible) when promoting college-going, college access, particularly for first-generation college students and students of color (Nikischer, Weis, & Dominguez, 2016; Gandara & Bial, 2001; Woods & Domina, 2014). According to a study conducted by Velez (2016) and published by the National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC), 12th graders who talked to a school counselor about their future plans were 6.8 times more likely to complete a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA); 3.2 times more likely to attend college and 2 times more likely to attend a bachelor’s degree program.
However, the empirical examination of college counseling in K–12 settings is relatively new. Major questions that arise when discussing counseling to enhance K–12 students’ college and career readiness have to do with the accessibility of counseling, who conducts the counseling, to whom counseling will be available, and the impact of counseling on actual student behavior and progress (e.g., rate of college going, college retention). Additionally, with the increasingly diverse student population in today’s K–12 schools, the notion what constitutes effective or good college counseling with diverse populations of students
and families is a critical question that must be answered in order to ensure equitable access to college for all (HolcombMcCoy, 2007; Savitz-Romer, 2012). Given the urgency to address the aforementioned issues, a variety of contextual factors influence the efficacy of counseling, particularly college counseling conducted in schools. The remainder of this chapter will provide a historical overview of
counseling, followed by a discussion of contextual factors that possibly impede effective college counseling. Trends and future directions will also be discussed. As a note, most private schools and some public high schools have designated “college counselors.” The “typical public high school” has a guidance department, consisting of school counselors who all perform college counseling tasks in addition to other counseling-related duties (e.g., scheduling, crisis counseling, drop-out prevention programming). There are also community-based “college counselors” and college preparation organizations that provide
college counseling and/or coaching. For the sake of clarity, in this chapter, college counseling refers to all of these scenarios.
Historical Overview of Counseling Professional counseling continues to evolve in response to social, educational, political, and economic trends. In October 2010, the American Counseling Association (ACA) Governing Council approved the following definition of counseling: Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families, and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals (American Counseling Association, 2019). Several researchers have cited the evolution of vocational guidance and psychology to transformative school counseling
(Cobia & Henderson, 2003; Coy, 1999; Education Trust, 1997; House, & Martin, 1998; Schmidt, 2003). However, college counseling as it relates to school counseling has a less defined path. The most notable and frequently cited influence that initially heightened postsecondary awareness was the passing of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in 1958. The NDEA enacted by the federal government, provided funding to improve secondary school counseling, with emphases on high school counselor preparation to subsidize training programs and professional institutes for guidance personnel. It was also in
the 1950s that the American Psychological Association and the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) introduced distinct standards and requirements for pupil personnel workers (e.g., psychologists, guidance counselors, and social workers). In the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, focus turned to education initiatives, such as the High Schools That Work and The School Development Program, which were student-centered and developed to increase academic achievement and postsecondary student preparedness (Board, 1999a). The High Schools That Work (Board, 1999a, 1999b) research visibly
placed school counselor roles in the practice of vocational guidance. Evidence based research on The School Development Program demonstrated consistent and continuous student improvement, especially in urban settings; however, direct linkage to school counseling services is vague (Smylie, Wenzel, & Fendt, 2003). During the concurrent era, state Department of Education personnel and counselor educators began to evaluate the impact or absence of school counseling interventions on education reform models, instructional environments, and college counseling. Inharmonious discussions centered on the role
of the school counselor and postsecondary advisement. Also, during this time, graduate counselor education programs were grounded in clinical and community mental health models that viewed college counseling and academic advisement as conflicting role identities for school counselors (McDonough, 2004). As a result, school counselors were being trained to be highly skilled mental health counselors without an educational framework or perspective of which to guide their practice (Kaplan, 1995).
Also, during this time (i.e., 1990s), the presence of community agency partnerships and federally funded opportunity programs were downsized and some educators began to question if college counseling services were necessary to inform and empower students to the path of college. McDonough (2004) acknowledges that prior to the 1990s, a significant segment of college counseling was absorbed through self-help modalities as a guiding principle. That same focus continued during the early 1990s as widening achievement gaps, astounding dropout rates, and declining test scores gave rise to the rethinking
and evaluation of school counselor roles and responsibilities in educational settings. Social challenges such as violence, teen pregnancy, peer pressure, poverty, hunger, and homelessness suggested a need for school counselors to use systemic approaches as an integral part of their counseling services (Capuzzi & Gross, 2000; Hossler, Schmidt, & Vesper, 1999). The literature suggests that the aforementioned history led to the DeWitt Wallace-Education Trust’s national initiative to transform school counseling (Education Trust, 1997). Both organizations were convinced that school counselors were not
prepared to contribute to equitable learning and college access for all students. Yet, they postulated that professional school counselors were in the best position to identify barriers that impede academic success for all students. ASCA supported the Education Trust’s initiative and principles (e.g., leadership, advocacy, and collaboration) and consequently, introduced the ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs (ASCA, 2003), as a guide for school counselors’ development of data-driven comprehensive school counseling programs. Currently, the Education Trust’s New Vision for
School Counseling promotes school counseling in which “school counselors advocate for educational equity, access to a rigorous college and career-readiness curriculum, and academic success for all students” (Education Trust, 2009). The Education Trust’s website lists 23 Transforming School Counselor Preparation programs. These programs are committed to training school counselors in skills that are needed to remove barriers that impede student achievement (e.g., collaboration, use of data). The number of practicing school counselors who ascribe to the principles of the Education Trust’s New Vision is
unknown.
More recently, the Reach Higher Initiative, launched by former First Lady Michelle Obama during her time at the White House, worked to inspire every student in the United States to take charge of their future by completing their education past high school. The former First Lady said that if we are to reach the former President Obama’s Northstar goal (to have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world by 2020), schools and states must empower school counselors. That’s why school counselors are a part of her Reach Higher Initiative, she told attendees at the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) conference in June 2014.
Factors Influencing College Counseling in Schools There are multiple indicators that suggest a need for a shift in the foundational principles and practices of school counseling. First and foremost, there are stark disparities in college enrollments across groups of students. Low-income students, students whose parents have never attended college, and students of color (i.e., African American, Latino/Hispanic) are less likely to attend college when compared to their more affluent, white, and Asian peers (Baum & Payea, 2005; Perna et al., 2008).
Although college enrollments have increased across all groups, there is still a persistent enrollment gap (US Department of Commerce, 2017). Also, when students from underrepresented groups do enroll in college, they tend to enroll in public twoyear colleges and less selective and less-resourced four-year colleges and universities (National Center for Education Statistics, NCES, 2010).
The lack of college counseling in high schools has been noted as an explanation for these disparities in college access and choice; and consequently, school counselors have been blamed for their lack of engagement and gate-keeping practices related to college advising (Murphy, 2016; Rosenbaum, Miller, & Krei, 1996). Obviously, school counselors are a logical source of assistance for students who are likely to be dependent on school-based resources for college planning (Perna, 2004; Horn, Chen, & Chapman, 2003; Radford, Ifill, & Lew, 2016).
Recent studies on the efficacy and long-term effects of school counseling services, have highlighted contextual factors that can ultimately shape the extent of college counseling offered in schools. Not only do these factors affect the nature of college counseling services offered to students and parents, they also affect college choice, preparation for college, transition to college, and adjustment to the college environment.
Professional Commitment to College Counseling Counseling organizations have always embraced career and academic development as dimensions of the counselor’s role and in recent years, professional organizations have increasingly become more overt in their recognition of college counseling as a significant role for counselors. However, prior to 2014, professional associations very rarely collaborated on efforts to improve college counseling and advising strategies (McDonough, 2004). Instead, each organization has traditionally produced their own professional and ethical standards, developed policies and practices for their role groups, provided resources, sponsored annual conferences, and designed professional development programs for their members. The national focus to increase equitable postsecondary opportunities for all students has renewed attention to align the professional organizations and educational systems engaged in college access and completion work. Below are short descriptions of some of the
college counseling initiatives and associations that focus on college/career readiness.
During her tenure in the White House, former First Lady Michelle Obama launched the Reach Higher Initiative to increase the number of American citizens who earn a postsecondary credential. The Reach Higher Initiative aimed to encourage all students to graduate from high school and plan for their future by preparing to complete their education beyond high school, whether at a four-year or two-year university or through a professional training program. Obama recognized that school counselors and college advisers were instrumental partners in providing postsecondary support to students, especially those
who were first in their family to go to college (Reach Higher, n.d.). In conjunction with this initiative, Obama spoke at the 2014 ASCA Annual Conference in Orlando.
Today, the Reach Higher Initiative is a part of the Better Make Room/Civic Nation Foundation. Reach Higher seeks to help every student navigate the college going progress by (1) reaching students where they are at and celebrating their success on social media and through flagship events like College Signing Day; (2) raising awareness about helpful college access tools like FAFSA and Up Next and resources; and (3) enhancing student support systems by supporting school counselors and college advisers. In 2015–2017, the School Counselor of the Year ceremony took place at the White House and was hosted by
former First Lady Michelle Obama. Her support continues as a co-host for the School Counselor of the Year Award ceremony with the American School Counselor Association.
The Council of National School Counseling and College Access Organizations formed to create one unified body of college access organizations. The Council members include representation from the American Counseling Association (ACA); ACT; Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE); American School Counselor Association (ASCA); College Advising Corps (CAC); The College Board; Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP); National Association for College Admission Counseling (NACAC); National College Access Network (NCAN); and The
Southern Regional Education Board’s Go Alliance (SREB). The council members are committed to providing a comprehensive multi-organizational, multi-institutional asset map of competencies,  knowledge/skillset requirements, and resources for advising students for postsecondary access and success.